Preparing Social Work Students to Recognize and Respond to Risks of Firearm Violence
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18060/28438Keywords:
violence, firearms, prevention, educationAbstract
Firearm violence in the United States is increasing and is a major cause of death for many demographic groups, especially Black Americans. Policy attempts to reduce deaths and injuries face difficult hurdles, including legislatures and courts that place primacy on the Second Amendment to the Constitution. Thus, clinicians across disciplines are encouraged to engage in prevention practice across diverse contexts. Evidence suggests that few social workers have been prepared to recognize and respond to the risks of gun violence amongst their clients beyond a few specific practice contexts. This article lays out a framework for the education of social work students on essential aspects of firearm violence: the nature of violence, misunderstandings of the connections to mental illness, recognizing risks, engaging with clients on mitigating those risks, and understanding key policy debates that affect practicing social workers. This article seeks to spark conversations about the need to educate social work students on this topic, including curricular developments related to the Council on Social Work 2022 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards.
References
Aisenberg, E., & Herrenkohl, T. (2008). Community violence in context: Risk and resilience in children and families. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 296-315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507312287
Alschuler, A. W. (2023). Twilight-zone originalism: The Supreme Court’s peculiar reasoning in New York State Pistol & Rifle Association v. Bruen. William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, 32(1), 1-115. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4330457
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2019). Bright Futures handout: Parent 3 year visit [Brochure]. Author. https://downloads.aap.org/AAP/PDF/Bright%20Futures/bftk_parent_handout_3year.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2019, August 15). One-third of US adults say fear of mass shootings prevents them from going to certain places or events [Press release]. Author. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2019/08/fear-mass-shooting
Anestis, M. D., Moceri-Brooks, J., Johnson, R. L., Bryan, C. J., Stanley, I. H., Buck-Atkinson, J. T., & Betz, M. E. (2023). Assessment of firearm storage practices in the US, 2022. JAMA Network Open, 6(3), e231447-e231447. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.1447
Appelbaum, P. S. (2013). Public safety, mental disorders, and guns. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(6), 565-566. Https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.315
Aspholm, R. R., St Vil, C., & Carter, K. A. E. (2019). Interpersonal gun violence research in the social work literature. Health & Social Work, 44(4), 224-231. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/hlz021
Attridge, M. M., & Powell, E. C. (2023). Social risk behaviors for firearm violence. In Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Health (pp. 498-507). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818872-9.00155-2
Beam, A. (2023, February 2). Federal appeals court strikes down domestic violence gun law. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/us-supreme-court-politics-crime-texas-violence-6d2af127ca14c65ca9a925645a5ee546
Berk, R., Heidari, H., Jabbari, S., Kearns, M., & Roth, A. (2021). Fairness in criminal justice risk assessments: The state of the art. Sociological Methods & Research, 50(1), 3-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118782533 (Original work published 2018)
Berkelmans, G., van der Mei, R., Bhulai, S., & Gilissen, R. (2021). Identifying socio-demographic risk factors for suicide using data on an individual level. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11743-3
Betz, M. E., & Wintemute, G. J. (2015). Physician counseling on firearm safety: A new kind of cultural competence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 314(5), 449-450. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.7055
Bleyer, A., Siegel, S. E., & Thomas Jr, C. R. (2021). Increasing rate of unintentional firearm deaths in youngest Americans: Firearm prevalence and Covid-19 pandemic implication. Journal of the National Medical Association, 113(3), 265-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnma.2020.12.005
Bottiani, J. H., Camacho, D. A., Lindstrom Johnson, S., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2021). Annual research review: Youth firearm violence disparities in the United States and implications for prevention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62(5), 563-579. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13392
Bright, C. L. (2022). The problem of gun violence in the United States. Social Work Research, 46(3), 183-184. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svac019
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives. (2016, September 23). What does the Child Safety Lock Act of 2005 (CSLA) require of a licensee? Author. https://www.atf.gov/firearms/qa/what-does-child-safety-lock-act-2005-csla-require-licensee#:~:text=When%20selling%2C%20delivering%2C%20or%20transferring,that%20person%20for%20the%20handgun
Byrne, J. P., Kaufman, E., Scantling, D., Tam, V., Martin, N., Raza, S., & Seamon, M. J. (2022). Association between geospatial access to care and firearm injury mortality in Philadelphia. JAMA Surgery, 157(10), 942-949. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2022.3677
Campbell, J. C. (1995). Assessing dangerousness: Violence by sexual offenders, batterers, and child abusers. Sage.
Campbell, J. C., Webster, D. W., & Glass, N. (2009). The Danger Assessment: Validation of a lethality risk assessment instrument for intimate partner femicide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(4), 653-674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508317180
Carlson, J. (2023, March 5). From a society of survivors to a survivor society: Examining gun trauma in the U.S. Footnotes, 50(4), 1-5. https://www.asanet.org/footnotes-article/society-survivors-survivor-society-examining-gun-trauma-us/
Carter, P. M., Cook, L. J., Macy, M. L., Zonfrillo, M. R., Stanley, R. M., Chamberlain, J. M., & Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN). (2017). Individual and neighborhood characteristics of children seeking emergency department care for firearm injuries within the PECARN network. Academic Emergency Medicine, 24(7), 803-813. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.13200
Carter, P. M., Walton, M. A., Roehler, D. R., Goldstick, J., Zimmerman, M. A., Blow, F. C., & Cunningham, R. M. (2015). Firearm violence among high-risk emergency department youth after an assault injury. Pediatrics, 135(5), 805-815. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3572
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2022, October 7). Firearm deaths grow, disparities widen [Archive]. Author. https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0510-vs-firearm-deathrates.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2025). Web-based injury statistics query and reporting system (WISQARS) [Archive]. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC (producer). https://web.archive.org/web/20150215050746/http://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/index.html
Choe, J. Y., Teplin, L. A., & Abram, K. M. (2008). Perpetration of violence, violent victimization, and severe mental illness: Balancing public health concerns. Psychiatric Services, 59(2), 153-164. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.2.153
Cimolai, V., Schmitz, J., & Sood, A. B. (2021). Effects of mass shootings on the mental health of children and adolescents. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-021-01222-2
Cleary, A., Kaczor, F., Finnegan, M., Schimek, J., Egen-Schimek, A., O’Donnell,E., & Melzer-Lange, M. (2022). An intervention to improve safe firearm storage for adolescents presenting with suicide ideation or attempt in a pediatric emergency department. Injury Epidemiology, 9(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-022-00399-1
Collins, C. J., Glennon, A. S., Logan-Greene, P., Sperlich, M., & Seong, E. (2026). Assessing for firearm risks: A rapid review of clinical assessment measures. Research on Social Work Practice, 36(3), 322-331. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497315251329998
Conner, A., Azrael, D., & Miller, M. (2019). Suicide case-fatality rates in the United States, 2007 to 2014: A nationwide population-based study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 171(12), 885-895. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-1324
Conrick, K. M., McCollum, O., Porter, S. F., St. Vil, C., Kanuha, V. K., Rowhani-Rahbar, A., & Moore, M. (2025). Preventing firearm injuries and deaths among clients: An action plan model for social workers. Social Work, 70(1), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swae050
Council on Social Work Education. (2022). 2022 EPAS: Educational policy and accreditation standards. Author. https://www.cswe.org/getmedia/bb5d8afe-7680-42dc-a332-a6e6103f4998/2022-Educational-Policy-and-Accreditation-Standards-(EPAS).pdf
Cunningham, R. M., Lee, D., & Carter, P. M. (2022). The role of academic medical centers in the prevention of violence and firearm-related morbidity and mortality. JAMA, 328(12), 1195-1196. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.16897
Department of Education. (2025, March 5). Bipartisan Safer Communities Act. https://oese.ed.gov/bipartisan-safer-communities-act/#:~:text=On%20June%2025%2C%202022%2C%20President,and%20positive%20school%20environments%20for
Dorris, L., & Murphy, A. L. (2021). No more politics over people: The role of helping professions in the prevention of mass shootings and gun-related violence. Traumatology, 29(1), 87-92. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000350
Duenow, P., & Connelly, L. B. (2024). The effect of gun buy‐back law reform on homicides and suicides in Australia. Health Economics, 33(2), 248-279. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4769
Duncan, T. K., Weaver, J. L., Zakrison, T. L., Joseph, B., Campbell, B. T., Christmas, A., Stewart, R. M., Kuhls, D. A., & Bulger, E. M. (2020). Domestic violence and safe storage of firearms in the COVID-19 era. Annals of Surgery, 272(2), e55-e57. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000004088
Esparaz, J. R., Waters, A. M., Mathis, M. S., Deng, L., Xie, R., Chen, M. K., Beierle, E. A., & Russell, R. T. (2021). The disturbing findings of pediatric firearm injuries from the National Trauma Data Bank: 2010-2016. Journal of Surgical Research, 259, 224-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2020.05.096
Fleegler, E. W., & Madeira, J. L. (2020). First, prevent harm: Eliminate firearm transfer liability as a lethal means reduction strategy. American Journal of Public Health, 110(5), 619-620. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305635
Fowler, K. A., Dahlberg, L. L., Haileyesus, T., Gutierrez, C., & Bacon, S. (2017). Childhood firearm injuries in the United States. Pediatrics, 140(1), 1-11. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6488039/pdf/PEDS_20163486.pdf
Fox, J. A., & Levin, J. (2022). Mass murder in America: Trends, characteristics, explanations, and policy response. Homicide Studies, 26(1), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679211043803
Frattaroli, S., Zeoli, A. M., & Webster, D. W. (2021). Armed, prohibited and violent at home: Implementation and enforcement of restrictions on gun possession by domestic violence offenders in four US localities. Journal of Family Violence, 36, 573-586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00241-6
Gause, E. L., Conrick, K., Moore, M., Rowhani-Rahbar, A., & Rivara, F. P. (2022). Survey of Washington clinicians’ willingness to use and preferences related to extreme risk protection orders. Preventive Medicine Reports, 28, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101883
Ghiasi, N., Azhar, Y., & Singh, J. (2022). Psychiatric illness and criminality. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/
Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. (2023a). Who can have a gun: Extreme risk protection orders. Author. https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/who-can-have-a-gun/extreme-risk-protection-orders/
Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. (2023b). Background checks: Mental health record reporting. Author. https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/background-checks/mental-health-reporting/#footnote_16_5617
Glass, N., Perrin, N., Hanson, G., Bloom, T., Gardner, E., & Campbell, J. C. (2008). Risk for reassault in abusive female same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 98(6), 1021-1027. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.117770
Goldstick, J. E., Carter, P. M., Walton, M. A., Dahlberg, L. L., Sumner, S. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Cunningham, R. M. (2017). Development of the SaFETy score: a clinical screening tool for predicting future firearm violence risk. Annals of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 707-714. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-1927
Goodyear, A., Rodriguez, M., & Glik, D. (2020). The role of firearms in intimate partner violence: Policy and research considerations. Journal of Public Health Policy, 41(2), 185-195. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41271-019-00198-x
Grinshteyn, E., & Hemenway, D. (2019). Violent death rates in the US compared to those of the other high-income countries, 2015. Preventive Medicine, 123, 20-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.02.026
Haider, A. H., Weygandt, P. L., Bentley, J. M., Monn, M. F., Rehman, K. A., Zarzaur, B. L., Crandall, M. L., Cornwell, E. E., & Cooper, L. A. (2013). Disparities in trauma care and outcomes in the United States: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 74(5), 1195-1205. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e31828c331d
Hawley-Bernardez, A., Patton, J., Meza, C., & Gibbons, G. (2024). Addressing gun violence through social work education. Social Work Education, 44(3), 586-599. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2024.2334788
Hoops, K., McCourt, A., & Crifasi, C. K. (2022). The 5 A’s of firearm safety counseling: Validating a clinical counseling methodology for firearms in a simulation-based randomized controlled trial. Preventive Medicine Reports, 27, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101811
Irigoyen, M., Porras-Segovia, A., Galván, L., Puigdevall, M., Giner, L., De Leon, S., & Baca-García, E. (2019). Predictors of re-attempt in a cohort of suicide attempters: A survival analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 247, 20-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.050
Jay, J., Kondo, M. C., Lyons, V. H., Gause, E., & South, E. C. (2022). Neighborhood segregation, tree cover and firearm violence in 6 US cities, 2015-2020. Preventive Medicine, 165, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107256
Jiminez, K. (September 29, 2024). Safe from slaughter: Parents opt for homeschooling in aftermath of mass shootings. USA Today. Available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2024/09/29/parents-choose-homeschooling-mass-shootings/75179760007/?gnt-cfr=1&gca-cat=p
Kagawa, R. M. C., Pear, V. A., Rudolph, K. E., Keyes, K. M., Cerdá, M., & Wintemute, G. J. (2020). Distress level and daily functioning problems attributed to firearm victimization: Sociodemographic-specific responses. Annals of Epidemiology, 41, 35-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.12.002
Kaufman, E. J., Wiebe, D. J., Xiong, R. A., Morrison, C. N., Seamon, M. J., & Delgado, M. K. (2021). Epidemiologic trends in fatal and nonfatal firearm injuries in the US, 2009-2017. JAMA Internal Medicine, 181(2), 237-244. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.6696
Kelly, T., Brandspigel, S., Polzer, E., & Betz, M. E. (2020). Firearm storage maps: A pragmatic approach to reduce firearm suicide during times of risk. Annals of Internal Medicine, 172(5), 351-353. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-2944
Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Chatterji, S., Lee, S., Ormel, J., Üstün, T. B., & Wang, P. S. (2009). The global burden of mental disorders: An update from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 18(1), 23-33. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1121189X00001421
Kivisto, A., Magee L., Phalen P., Ray B. (2019). Firearm ownership and domestic versus nondomestic homicide in the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 57, 311-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.04.009
Lee, L. K., Fleegler, E. W., Goyal, M. K., Doh, K. F., Laraque-Arena, D., & Hoffman, B. D. (2022). Firearm-related injuries and deaths in children and youth: Injury prevention and harm reduction. Pediatrics, 150(6), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-060071
Logan-Greene, P., & Gutterman, N. (2023, December). Prevent gun violence (Working Paper No. 27). Grand Challenges in Social Work. https://grandchallengesforsocialwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Preventing-Gun-Violence-WP27.pdf
Logan-Greene, P., Sperlich, M., & Finucane, A. (2018). Social work practice and gun safety in the United States: Are we doing enough? Advances in Social Work, 18(4), 1165-1186. https://doi.org/10.18060/21620
Logan-Greene, P., Sperlich, M., Seong, E., & Rasnake, R. (2026, January 17). Firearm violence prevention content in MSW programs: Current status and future directions. Flash talk presented at the Society for Social Work Research 30th Annual Conference, Washington, DC. https://sswr.confex.com/sswr/2026/webprogram/Paper60585.html
Lowe, S. R., & Galea, S. (2017). The mental health consequences of mass shootings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(1), 62-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015591572
Lynch, K. R., & Logan, T. K. (2022). “Always know where the gun is”: Service provider’s perceptions of firearm access, violence, and safety planning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(21-22), NP19827-NP19856. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211046270
Martin, C. A., Mainous III, A. G., Ford, H. Η., Mainous, R., Slade, S., Martin, D., & Omar, H. (2001). Attitudes towards guns: Associations with alcohol use and impulsive behaviors. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 13(3), 205-210. https://doi.org/10.1515/IJAMH.2001.13.3.205
Martin, R., Rajan, S., Shareef, F., Xie, K. C., Allen, K. A., Zimmerman, M., & Jay, J. (2022). Racial disparities in child exposure to firearm violence before and during COVID-19. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 63(2), 204-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2022.02.007
May, J. P., Hemenway, D., & Hall, A. (2002). Do criminals go to the hospital when they are shot? Injury Prevention, 8(3), 236-238. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.8.3.236
McGinty, E. E., Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Choksy, S., & Barry, C. L. (2016). Trends in news media coverage of mental illness in the United States: 1995-2014. Health Affairs, 35(6), 1121-1129. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.0011
McGinty, E. E., Webster, D. W., Jarlenski, M., & Barry, C. L. (2014). News media framing of serious mental illness and gun violence in the United States, 1997-2012. American Journal of Public Health, 104(3), 406-413. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301557
Mehranbod, C. A., Gobaud, A. N., Jacoby, S. F., Uzzi, M., Bushover, B. R., & Morrison, C. N. (2022). Historical redlining and the epidemiology of present-day firearm violence in the United States: A multi-city analysis. Preventive Medicine, 165, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107207
Messing, J. T., Amanor-Boadu, Y., Cavanaugh, C. E., Glass, N. E., & Campbell, J. C. (2013). Culturally competent intimate partner violence risk assessment: Adapting the danger assessment for immigrant women. Social Work Research, 37(3), 263-275. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svt019
Metzl, J. M., & MacLeish, K. T. (2015). Mental illness, mass shootings, and the politics of American firearms. American Journal of Public Health, 105(2), 240-249. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302242
Miller, G. F., Barnett, S. B. L., Florence, C. S., Harrison, K. M., Dahlberg, L. L., & Mercy, J. A. (2024). Costs of fatal and nonfatal firearm injuries in the US, 2019 and 2020. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 66(2), 195-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2023.09.026
Miller, M., Azrael, D., & Hemenway, D. (2002a). Firearm availability and unintentional firearm deaths, suicide, and homicide among 5-14 year olds. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 52(2), 267-275. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-200202000-00011
Miller, M., Azrael, D., & Hemenway, D. (2002b). Firearm availability and suicide, homicide, and unintentional firearm deaths among women. Journal of Urban Health, 79, 26-38. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/79.1.26
Monahan, J., & Steadman, H. J. (1996). Violent storms and violent people: How meteorology can inform risk communication in mental health law. American Psychologist, 51(9), 931-938. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.9.931
Motley, R., Sewell, W., & Chen, Y. C. (2017). Community violence exposure and risk taking behaviors among Black emerging adults: A systematic review. Journal of Community Health, 42, 1069-1078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-017-0353-4
Munoz, C. G., Perrault, R. T., & Vincent, G. M. (2021). Probation officer assessments of risk when the youth look different: Contributions of structured professional judgment to concerns about racial bias. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 19(2), 206-226.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204020954264
Murnan, J., Dake, J. A., & Price, J. H. (2004). Association of selected risk factors with variation in child and adolescent firearm mortality by state. Journal of School Health, 74(8), 335-340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb06624.x
Muschert, G. W., & Ragnedda, M. (2011). Media and control of violence: Communication in school shootings. In W. Heitmeyer, H-G. Haupt, A. Kirschner, & S. Malthaner (Eds.), Control of violence: Historical and international perspectives on violence in modern societies. (pp. 345-361). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0383-9_14
National Threat Assessment Center. (2019). Protecting America’s schools: A US Secret Service analysis of targeted school violence. US Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security. https://www.secretservice.gov/sites/default/files/2020-04/Protecting_Americas_Schools.pdf
New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen. (2022). Oyez. https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/20-843
Office of NICS Hospital Admission Relief Process. (n.d.). New York Secure Ammunition and Firearms Enforcement (SAFE) Act. New York State. https://nics.ny.gov/new-york-secure-ammunition-and-firearms-enforcement-safe-act
Opara, I., Lardier, D. T., Metzger, I., Herrera, A., Franklin, L., Garcia-Reid, P., & Reid, R. J. (2020). “Bullets have no names”: A qualitative exploration of community trauma among Black and Latinx youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 2117-2129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01764-8
Orlas, C. P., Thomas, A., Herrera-Escobar, J. P., Price, M. A., Haider, A. H., & Bulger, E. M. (2021). Long-term outcomes of firearm injury survivors in the United States: The National Trauma Research Action Plan Scoping Review. Annals of Surgery, 274(6), 962-970. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000005204
Owens, D., Horrocks, J., & House, A. (2002). Fatal and non-fatal repetition of self-harm: Systematic review. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 181(3), 193-199. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.181.3.193
Pallin, R., & Barnhorst, A. (2021). Clinical strategies for reducing firearm suicide. Injury Epidemiology, 8(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-021-00352-8
Pallin, R., Teasdale, S., Agnoli, A., Spitzer, S., Asif-Sattar, R., Wintemute, G. J., & Barnhorst, A. (2022). Talking about firearm injury prevention with patients: A survey of medical residents. BMC Medical Education, 22(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-03024-9
Pear, V. A., Schleimer, J. P., Tomsich, E., Pallin, R., Charbonneau, A., Wintemute, G. J., & Knoepke, C. E. (2021). Implementation and perceived effectiveness of gun violence restraining orders in California: A qualitative evaluation. PLoS One, 16(10), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258547
Perrault, R. T., Vincent, G. M., & Guy, L. S. (2017). Are risk assessments racially biased?: Field study of the SAVRY and YLS/CMI in probation. Psychological assessment, 29(6), 664-678. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000445
Pierre, J. M. (2019). The psychology of guns: Risk, fear, and motivated reasoning. Palgrave Communications, 5(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0373-z
Pinholt, E. M., Mitchell, J. D., Butler, J. H., & Kumar, H. (2014). “Is there a gun in the home?” Assessing the risks of gun ownership in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 62(6), 1142-1146. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.12836
Pirelli, G., & Gold, L. (2019). Leaving Lake Wobegon: Firearm-related education and training for medical and mental health professionals is an essential competence. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 11(2), 78-87. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-11-2018-0391
Posner, K., Brent, D., Lucas, C., Gould, M., Stanley, B., Brown, G., Zelaznuy, J, Fisher, P., Burke, A., Oquendo, M., Mann, J. (2008). Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS). Columbia University Medical Center. https://doi.org/10.1037/t52667-000
Posner, K., Brown, G. K., Stanley, B., Brent, D. A., Yershova, K. V., Oquendo, M. A., Currier, G. W., Melvin, G. A., Greenhill, L., Shen, S., & Mann, J. J. (2011). The Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale: Initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1266-1277. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10111704
Poulson, M., Neufeld, M. Y., Dechert, T., Allee, L., & Kenzik, K. M. (2021). Historic redlining, structural racism, and firearm violence: A structural equation modeling approach. The Lancet Regional Health-Americas, 3, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2021.100052
Ranney, M., Karb, R., Ehrlich, P., Bromwich, K., Cunningham, R., Beidas, R. S., & FACTS Consortium. (2019). What are the long-term consequences of youth exposure to firearm injury, and how do we prevent them? A scoping review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 42, 724-740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00035-2
Raza, S., Thiruchelvam, D., & Redelmeier, D. A. (2020). Death and long-term disability after gun injury: A cohort analysis. Canadian Medical Association Open Access Journal, 8(3), E469-E478. https://doi.org/10.9778/cmajo.20190200
Rees, C. A., Monuteaux, M. C., Steidley, I., Mannix, R., Lee, L. K., Barrett, J. T., & Fleegler, E. W. (2022). Trends and disparities in firearm fatalities in the United States, 1990-2021. JAMA Network Open, 5(11), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.44221
Roszko, P. J., Ameli, J., Carter, P. M., Cunningham, R. M., & Ranney, M. L. (2016). Clinician attitudes, screening practices, and interventions to reduce firearm-related injury. Epidemiologic Reviews, 38(1), 87-110. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv005
Rozel, J. S., & Mulvey, E. P. (2017). The link between mental illness and firearm violence: Implications for social policy and clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 445-469. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093459
Salhi, C., Berrigan, J., Azrael, D., Beatriz, E., Barber, C., Runyan, C., & Miller, M. (2021). ‘It’s changed how we have these conversations’: Emergency department clinicians’ experiences implementing firearms and other lethal suicide methods counseling for caregivers of adolescents. International Review of Psychiatry, 33(7), 617-625. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2020.1870938
Sanchez, C., Jaguan, D., Shaikh, S., McKenney, M., & Elkbuli, A. (2020). A systematic review of the causes and prevention strategies in reducing gun violence in the United States. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 38(10), 2169-2178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.06.062
Schell, T. L., Smart, R., Cefalu, M., Griffin, B. A., & Morral, A. R. (2024). State policies regulating firearms and changes in firearm mortality. JAMA Network Open, 7(7), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.22948
Sigel, E. J., Mattson, S. A., & Mercado, M. C. (2019). Increased violence involvement and other behavioral and mental health factors among youth with firearm access. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.028
Sierra-Arévalo, M. (2016). Legal cynicism and protective gun ownership among active offenders in Chicago. Cogent Social Sciences, 2(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1227293
Simon, T. R., Kegler, S. R., Zwald, M. L., Chen, M. S., Mercy, J. A., Jones, C. M., Mercado-Crespo, M. C., Blair, J. M., & Stone, D. M. (2022). Notes from the field: Increases in firearm homicide and suicide rates—United States, 2020-2021. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71, 1286-1287. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7140a4
Simonetti, J. A., Azrael, D., Zhang, W., & Miller, M. (2022). Perspectives on clinician-delivered firearm safety counseling during routine care: Results of a national survey. Preventive Medicine, 158, 1-3. 107039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107039
Simonsson, J. P., & Solomon, P. (2021). Misattribution of mental illness and gun violence. Social Work, 66(2), 170-172. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swab009
Sklar, T. (2019). Elderly gun ownership and the wave of state red flag laws: An unintended consequence that could help many. Elder Law Journal, 27, 101-115. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3279718
Slovak, K., & Brewer, T. W. (2010). Suicide and firearm means restriction: Can training make a difference? Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 40(1), 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/53.4.358
Slovak, K., Brewer, T. W., & Carlson, K. (2008). Client firearm assessment and safety counseling: The role of social workers. Social Work, 53(4), 358-366. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/53.4.358
Soni, A., & Tekin, E. (2020). How do mass shootings affect community wellbeing? (No. w28122). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28122
Sperlich, M., Logan-Greene, P., & Finucane, A. (2022). “If not us, then who?”: Frontline social workers’ perspectives on gun violence. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 19(1), 77-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/26408066.2021.1980478
Sperlich, M., Logan-Greene, P., Slovak, K., & Kaplan, M. (2019). Addressing gun violence: A social work imperative. Health and Social Work, 44(4), 217-220. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/hlz022
Stark, E., & Sachau, D. (2016). Lake Wobegon’s guns: Overestimating our gun-related competences. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 4(1), 8-23. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.1690
State of California Department of Justice. (n. d.). The six basic gun safety rules. https://oag.ca.gov/firearms/tips
Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Kataoka, S., Rhodes, H. J., & Vestal, K. D. (2003). Prevalence of child and adolescent exposure to community violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 247-264. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006292.61072.d2
Sun, S., Cao, W., Ge, Y., Siegel, M., & Wellenius, G. A. (2022). Analysis of firearm violence during the COVID-19 pandemic in the US. JAMA Network Open, 5(4), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.9393
Swanson, J. W. (2020). The color of risk protection orders: Gun violence, gun laws, and racial justice. Injury Epidemiology, 7(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-020-00272-z
Swanson, J. W., Norko, M. A., Lin, H. J., Alanis-Hirsch, K., Frisman, L. K., Baranoski, M. V & Bonnie, R. J. (2017). Implementation and effectiveness of Connecticut's risk-based gun removal law: Does it prevent suicides? Law and Contemporary Problems, 80(2), 179-208. http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4830&context=lcp
Swanson, S. A., Studdert, D. M., Zhang, Y., Prince, L., & Miller, M. (2022). Handgun divestment and risk of suicide. Epidemiology, 34(1), 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000001549
Texas State Law Library. (2026, March 2). Gun laws: Carry of firearms. Author. https://guides.sll.texas.gov/gun-laws/carry-of-firearms
Tikkanen, Fields, K., Williams, R. D., & Abrams, M. K. (2020). Mental health conditions and substance use: Comparing U.S. needs and treatment capacity with those in other high-income countries [Issue briefs]. The Commonwealth Fund. https://doi.org/10.26099/09HT-RJ07
Vella, M. A., Warshauer, A., Tortorello, G., Fernandez-Moure, J., Giacolone, J., Chen, B., Cabulong, A., Chreiman, K., Sims, C., Schwab, C. W., Reilly, P. M., Lane-Fall, M., Seamon, M. J., & Seamon, M. J. (2020). Long-term functional, psychological, emotional, and social outcomes in survivors of firearm injuries. JAMA Surgery, 155(1), 51-59. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2019.4533
Ward, J. A., Valek, R., Jones, V., & Crifasi, C. K. (2024). Reasons for gun ownership among demographically diverse new and prior gun owners. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 67, 730-739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2024.06.026
Webster, D. W., & Gostin, L. O. (2022). The Supreme Court expands Second Amendment rights as the nation experiences historic levels of firearms violence. JAMA, 328(12), 1187-1188. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.14073
Webster, D. W., & Wintemute, G. J. (2015). Effects of policies designed to keep firearms from high-risk individuals. Annual Review of Public Health, 36, 21-37. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122516
Westefeld, J. S., Gann, L. C., Lustgarten, S. D., & Yeates, K. J. (2016). Relationships between firearm availability and suicide: The role of psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 47(4), 271-277. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000089
White, K., Cook, P. J., & Pollack, H. A. (2021). Gunshot-victim cooperation with police investigations: Results from the Chicago inmate survey. Preventive Medicine, 143, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106381
Wintemute, G. J., Pear, V. A., Schleimer, J. P., Pallin, R., Sohl, S., Kravitz-Wirtz, N., & Tomsich, E. A. (2019). Extreme risk protection orders intended to prevent mass shootings: A case series. Annals of Internal Medicine, 171(9), 655-658. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-2162
Zeoli, A. M., Goldstick, J., Mauri, A., Wallin, M., Goyal, M., Cunningham, R., & FACTS Consortium. (2019). The association of firearm laws with firearm outcomes among children and adolescents: A scoping review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 42, 741-762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00063-y
Zeoli, A. M., Malinski, R., & Turchan, B. (2016). Risks and targeted interventions: Firearms in intimate partner violence. Epidemiologic Reviews, 38(1), 125-139. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv007
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Patricia Logan-Greene, Mickey Sperlich, Alexis Speck Glennon

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.